During the Middle Ages, feudal Western Europe and the Byzantine Empire had distinct political, economic, and social institutions. Students will examine these institutions and the role of Justinian and Theodora in shaping them.

1. Political Institutions:
   • Feudal Western Europe: Feudalism was the dominant political system. It involved a hierarchical structure where kings granted land to nobles in exchange for military service and loyalty. The nobles, in turn, granted land to knights who served as their vassals. This system provided protection and stability but limited the power of the central authority.
   • Byzantine Empire: The Byzantine Empire had a centralized autocratic government. The emperor held absolute power and was considered God’s representative on earth. The emperor appointed officials and governed through a complex bureaucracy. The empire also had a strong military, with the emperor as the supreme commander.
2. Economic Institutions:
   • Feudal Western Europe: The economy was primarily agrarian, with manors serving as self-sufficient agricultural estates. Serfs, who were tied to the land, worked for the lord in exchange for protection and a share of the produce. Trade and commerce were limited, and the economy was largely localized.
   • Byzantine Empire: The Byzantine Empire had a more diverse and prosperous economy. It was a major center of trade, connecting Europe and Asia. Constantinople, the capital, was a hub of economic activity. The empire had a strong currency, regulated trade, and encouraged the production of luxury goods.
3. Social Institutions:
   • Feudal Western Europe: Society was divided into three main classes: the nobility, the clergy, and the peasants. The nobility held the highest social status and owned the land. The clergy, including priests and monks, played a significant role in religious and intellectual life. Peasants, who made up the majority of the population, were tied to the land and had limited social mobility.
   • Byzantine Empire: Byzantine society was more stratified. The emperor and the aristocracy held the highest positions, followed by the middle class of merchants and professionals. The majority of the population consisted of peasants and slaves. The Byzantine Empire also had a strong emphasis on education and intellectual pursuits, with renowned scholars and universities.
4. Role of Justinian and Theodora:
   • Justinian: Justinian was the Byzantine emperor from 527 to 565. He is known for his efforts to restore the Roman Empire’s former glory. Justinian implemented legal reforms, known as the Justinian Code, which codified Roman laws and influenced legal systems in Europe. He also undertook ambitious building projects, including the construction of the Hagia Sophia.
   • Theodora: Theodora was Justinian’s wife and a powerful empress. She played a significant role in politics and influenced Justinian’s decisions. Theodora advocated for women’s rights, protected the rights of prostitutes, and supported social welfare programs. She was also involved in religious affairs and played a role in the suppression of the Nika riots.

By examining the political, economic, and social institutions of feudal Western Europe and the Byzantine Empire, as well as the role of Justinian and Theodora, students can gain a comprehensive understanding of the Middle Ages and the factors that shaped these societies.