Photovoltaic cells, also known as solar cells, are responsible for converting sunlight into energy by the photovoltaic effect. They are typically used in combination with solar panels to generate electricity. Photovoltaic cells are the most efficient source of electricity available and are capable of producing power from sunlight with no emissions or pollution.

The operation of photovoltaic cells is based on the photovoltaic effect, which is a phenomenon in which light is converted into electricity when it is absorbed by a semiconductor material. The photovoltaic effect works by transferring the energy from light into electrical energy. This is accomplished when a photon, or particle of light, is absorbed by an electron in the semiconductor material. The electron is then kicked up to a higher energy level and when it relaxes back down it gives off energy in the form of electricity.

The materials used in photovoltaic cells are usually silicon or gallium arsenide. Silicon has proven to be the most effective material for photovoltaic cells, due to its stability, abundance and relatively low cost.

Once the photovoltaic cells are manufactured, the next step is to connect them together in a solar panel. Each photovoltaic cell functions as its own miniature power plant, converting the light energy into electrical energy. The electrical output of each cell is quite small, so several cells are usually connected together in series (one after the other) to form solar panels with larger current outputs.

Photovoltaic cells also contain a number of other electrical components, such as diodes to prevent reverse current flow and bypass capacitors to help maintain a steady output voltage. Additionally, photovoltaic cells are often protected with an anti-reflective coating to reduce excessive light absorption, which can cause heating and make the cell less efficient. The components and protective coating, along with the electrical wiring, are all soldered together to form the solar panel.

Once the solar panel is ready, it can be used to generate electricity. When sunlight strikes the photovoltaic cells, the energy is converted into electrical current, which is passed through the wiring network in the solar panel and directed towards an inverter. The inverter converts the direct current (DC) to an alternating current (AC) that is suitable for use in most home electronics. The AC current can then be stored in batteries or fed directly into the electrical grid for worldwide consumption.

Inverters can also be equipped with numerous safety features, such as surge protection and over/under voltage protection, which help ensure that the solar panel is operating at an optimal level and is protected from potential electrical damage.

Photovoltaic cells are one of the most efficient and cost-effective sources of energy available. Through the photovoltaic effect, they are able to convert energy from the sun into usable electricity without producing any pollution or emissions. As more research is conducted and advances in technology are made, photovoltaic cells will continue to become more efficient and cost-effective, paving the way towards a more sustainable future powered by solar energy.